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Mohamed El Kholy , Rasha Tarif Hamza * , Mohamed Saleh and Heba Elsedfy* ~' }& R0 I& r
Penile length and genital anomalies in Egyptian
# H t0 [2 t, n4 B% i9 ]male newborns: epidemiology and influence of. b ` z0 F2 d/ g5 _2 S$ @; ^
endocrine disruptors
8 P: {2 h V- A) u: a' T$ fAbstract: This is an attempt to establish the normal
) ~8 |4 C: a! i7 h4 |stretched penile length and prevalence of male geni-; N( J( O1 L* ^2 Z+ k
tal anomalies in full-term neonates and whether they
. w! g d9 |# X/ R/ ~1 Tare influenced by prenatal parental exposure to endo-
, J% N+ B3 k" V6 Dcrine-disrupting chemicals. A thousand newborns were" s) g( T2 X) x) J C5 r
included; their mothers were subjected to the following( R7 G! A. t- m3 U z! B
questionnaire: parents ’ age, residence, occupation, con-
8 R& o! S9 [& |tact with insecticides and pesticides, antenatal exposure
. h. B% H. S; n+ r1 ~to cigarette smoke or drugs, family history of genital
8 ?+ [: O4 [4 E" N1 R/ N4 D) Janomalies, phytoestrogens intake and history of in vitro
0 y4 q. T9 w0 pfertilization or infertility. Free testosterone was measured6 f* C* t+ B# S5 v
in 150 neonates in the first day of life. Mean penile length
4 d3 H/ M) R4 dwas 3.4 ± 0.37 cm. A penile length < 2.5 cm was considered/ c5 [. H" S: H$ r2 v
micropenis. Prevalence of genital anomalies was 1.8 %' _: k4 y0 v) b- @# f% o9 K' ^
(hypospadias 83.33 % ). There was a higher rate of anoma-$ R6 O; M3 V) n, P9 h' [
lies in those exposed to endocrine disruptors (EDs; 7.4 % )$ E- A! T G1 g D3 D( Y
than in the non-exposed (1.2 % ; p < 0.0001; odds ratio 6,( N4 s8 e4 r9 e8 y
95 % confidence interval 2 – 16). Mean penile length showed
+ F# J: \# u' s0 ] A6 U% E4 Ta linear relationship with free testosterone and was lower
, j2 m& k6 a( V3 Cin neonates exposed to EDs., T6 O# T! q5 e' i( M" ^
Keywords: endocrine disruptors; genital anomalies; male;
9 U, o: S) U# ]penile length; testosterone.1 g# P7 i+ B, s" W" t/ h" j% c4 W
*Corresponding author : Rasha Tarif Hamza, MD, Faculty of
; k, w* B- ~# ]Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Ain Shams University, 36
; N# G0 Z$ J6 k. WHisham Labib Street, off Makram Ebeid Street, Nasr City, Cairo
8 Q1 V; ?7 J3 E2 W11371, Cairo, Egypt, Phone: + 20-2-22734727, Fax: + 20-2-26904430 ,
+ e, j, Y; l" z; wE-mail: rashatarif_2000@hotmail.com/ k- e% O: b8 J$ T8 u: }' U
Mohamed El Kholy, Mohamed Saleh and Heba Elsedfy: Faculty of9 H% J# K" C, V+ C
Medicine , Department of Pediatrics, Ain Shams University, Cairo,
+ Q3 m$ N6 z9 y- K% M( \Egypt- _% _5 F+ x& @+ z( Q
Introduction
3 S! Q k; @5 C2 s0 p. i/ ODetermination of penile size is employed clinically in, f! d+ z8 y4 X6 [$ b
the evaluation of children with abnormal genital devel-
\7 o9 X$ Q4 [( q8 Ropment, such as, for example, micropenis, defined as a
3 n3 l; ]* r) g1 k/ Epenis that is normal in terms of shape and function, but is5 [; G) d9 f( h/ _: ^' Q; o: k
more than 2.5 standard deviations (SD) smaller than mean
' z5 K# u0 j0 l& p1 osize in terms of length (1) . However, these measurements O7 g' C- F& v( x
can be subject to significant international variations, in
: U6 K" K" L7 H9 x% R9 i' aaddition to being obtained with different methodologies
+ H. A5 B4 w1 k. R4 k9 m% R+ bin some cases (2) .
3 P0 V8 `" P6 l; oOver the past 20 years, the documented increase in
! [ k1 T. u4 q1 e# Q& f- y0 `disorders of male sexual differentiation, such as hypo-
( z/ _' x/ I6 W! ~" ospadias, cryptorchidism, and micropenis, has led to the
% O- J. y/ J9 O- wsuspicion that environmental chemicals are detrimental. m6 E3 M' {' \
to normal male genital development in utero (3) . The so-
" e8 [/ I7 o$ b+ Q2 Ecalled Sharpe-Skakkebaek hypothesis offered a possible) g0 u5 ^. I ?$ p2 Y- }/ L
common cause and toxicological mechanism for abnor-
# V) T, R2 C; I0 U- U$ Smalities in men and boys – that is, increased exposure to1 r% [1 z* P! p# B E8 O
oestrogen in utero may interfere with the multiplication1 q ~" f9 U* `; ~$ H
of fetal Sertoli cells, resulting in hormonally mediated
8 g. d3 [) a5 Z+ |# h+ Wdevelopmental effects and, after puberty, reduced quality/ ^6 I& Y; f" o7 \: K
of semen (4) .
# i. K8 S- N( \) {5 j- d: bIt has been proposed that these disorders are part of6 N% G. F: v* O" U9 X6 m7 R
a single common underlying entity known as the testicu-% ]# Q2 h3 X2 u3 b
lar dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) (5) . TDS comprises various. h) w" U' t C! o6 R% U1 g
aspects of impaired gonadal development and function,4 S6 r1 C4 s0 v6 _ H% I
including abnormal spermatogenesis, cryptorchidism,. q/ c) V) ?% s$ I. i. i4 R: P$ N
hypospadias, and testicular cancer (6) .1 v2 }3 Y2 ?7 Q3 U
The etiological basis for this condition is complex; }& \0 S- L6 V: K' b
and is thought to be due to a combination of both genetic4 F) s. j; [. ^4 p/ Z. m/ Y9 W
and environmental factors that result in the disruption
) A! B% O( a' Aof normal gonadal development during fetal life. First,
# x) m9 O6 J1 `* V4 b! P' a; oit was proposed that environmental chemicals with oes-
" f, X- w9 j C. }5 Ctrogen-like actions could have adverse effects on male
" [# p9 K m6 ?' t+ P, bgonadal development. This has since been expanded to& _8 L% y* O4 Z' Z" v
include environmental chemicals with anti-androgen# l3 H/ ?: K4 F
actions and it is now thought that an imbalance between/ G9 {2 @' z, t, _& ?* N
androgen and oestrogen activity is the key mechanism by
e' W% T1 d. r$ Z) K; V5 x" I" o' gwhich exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)& z$ x2 P3 a) `: z/ C. l' ~
results in the development of TDS and male reproductive
{0 Z- n, B! Utract abnormalities (5) .
1 y8 {# u: E. F HWith the increasing use of environmental chemicals,
6 P6 G: y$ z# t# V9 q) w6 jan attempt was made to establish the normal stretched y( M0 M c4 W* F( b+ j6 x/ u# ?
penile length as well as the prevalence of male genital
/ }7 e2 }3 u) Q' g' s( I6 uanomalies in full-term neonates and whether there is an |& @/ J0 S# f$ e( Y+ c
influence of prenatal parental exposure to potential EDCs3 Z/ B/ n- b- X/ a! q% P* _1 j& q
on these parameters.
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510 El Kholy et al.: Penile length and male genital anomalies
& o# y7 J t- C8 f8 y. T& u) l( nSubjects and methods; v0 W& P, S; D& y' f
Study population
7 ~( u* X' V- L: f. ZThe study was conducted as a prospective cohort study at the Univer-* l- Y- L9 t+ o+ ?: j0 }) w7 D
sity Hospital of Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt. A sample of 10005 j( r, u* n! o' L5 ~( y& f3 z3 D: q9 e
male full-term newborns was studied.2 d/ ~5 X8 ?: k: ]
Sampling technique8 L4 ]5 @# D! ~
Three days per week were selected randomly out of 7 days. In each. ]1 x4 x# Y+ P' x
day, all male full-term deliveries were selected during the time of fi eld
1 U: l, l( o7 }5 S) Nstudy (12 h) during the period from March 2007 to November 2007.2 n) e+ A9 ^' g' ~8 w% I% X. C
Statistical analysis6 {! k( V9 A! O7 n; t
The computer program SPSS for Windows release 11.0 (SPSS Inc.,' Y! ^" S7 ?: O2 y8 j- m
Chicago, IL, USA) was used for data entry and analysis. All numeric9 e5 G/ J) r5 ^! Q. R$ o& d! A6 P. d
variables were expressed as mean ± SD. Comparison of diff erent vari-
6 V9 m, R7 k3 ^& S& `/ ?ables between two groups was done using the Student ’ s t-test for4 [( G4 m& \8 ]' I2 j" m1 `
normally distributed variables. Comparisons of multiple groups were1 Z9 u' G$ q6 m
done using analysis of variance and post hoc tests for normally dis-" K& \$ y3 {5 [- Y2 H! Y
tributed variables. The χ 2 -test was used to compare the frequency of6 g2 \0 ~) J, t6 i
qualitative variables among the diff erent groups; the Fisher exact test/ B# O$ R) Z( a
was performed in tables containing values < 5. The Pearson correla-
0 j4 l! u5 {# M$ @4 @4 @+ O' |1 W7 Ition test was used for correlating various variables. For all tests, a
0 m, _+ X; b1 Z# D/ O. Iprobability (p) < 0.05 was considered signifi cant (10) .
8 s3 A2 x2 ^+ S" GResults
9 K* b" g. Q; T9 I Y( SData collected+ k ?( g' h" L+ L$ I
A researcher completed a structured questionnaire during inter-! h6 Q# m( @ @8 t! D
views with the mothers. The questionnaire gathered information
# p) E8 p( D- L. U4 qon the following: age of parents; residence; occupation of the+ _- S" @; i( E- g
parents; contact with insecticides and pesticides and their type and" k! e6 `8 N B, c$ b1 L9 h
frequency of contact; maternal exposure to cigarette smoke during
# m& `4 e' y, `1 w0 Xpregnancy; maternal drug history during gestation; family history
3 S5 Y, j8 b8 r: Hof hypospadias, cryptorchidism, or other congenital anomalies; in-
Z, g! z5 o3 B& {take of foods containing phytoestrogens, e.g., soy beans, olive oil,
6 g5 g( [4 n. k" lgarlic, hummus, sesame seed, and their frequency; and, also, his-' y S+ z5 c$ W# ~6 T+ T/ Y+ s+ }) ?
tory of in vitro fertilization or infertility (type of infertility and drugs1 p# [) O: i: W% D
given)./ R& H) T7 }0 D
Environmental exposure to chemicals was evaluated for its po-
% w; S, r W) b& stential of causing endocrine disruption. Chemicals were classifi ed: X `; @( D' q* X) G, ^
into two groups on the basis of scientifi c evidence for their having6 C- @8 C/ C% x
endocrine-disrupting properties: group I: evidence of endocrine dis-$ I+ q5 h8 s0 Q6 k5 S
ruption high and medium exposure concern; group II: no evidence of' R4 y8 `! M4 M* x; s6 ~7 m
endocrine disruption and low exposure concern (7) .3 e9 ~9 X% e0 n7 q
Descriptive data* v% p# m9 x; `) D: g
The mean age of newborns ’ fathers was 36 ± 6 years (range
0 N4 K) H u1 ^- y& A20 – 50 years) and that of mothers was 26 ± 5 years (range8 [2 u+ H1 Z& ^( d7 h2 i4 W
19 – 42 years). Exposure to EDs started long before preg-
5 a, `2 _4 q% N3 Snancy and continued throughout pregnancy. Regard-% p5 ]! m, f) x. Z8 r
ing therapeutic history during pregnancy, 99 mothers
9 [( E' f$ x% P" U$ O8 a(9.9 % ) received progestins, 14 (1.4 % ) received insulin,# Y7 x* n* `1 _" _1 s, L% I
6 (0.6 % ) received heparin, 4 (0.04 % ) received long-
. m3 _6 ?$ O' W) qacting penicillin, 3 (0.3 % ) received aspirin, 2 (0.2 % )/ D2 ~ r s8 z5 W$ |
received B2 agonist, and 1 (0.1 % ) received thyroxin,0 v$ w- T; g8 f( p9 w
while the rest did not receive any medications during2 r1 M# G, w# b
pregnancy except for the known multivitamins and2 f! w$ `$ f P" R2 P4 E1 z! T
calcium supplementations. In addition, family history
3 x- M S& k: E$ q+ u/ L9 Sof newborns born small for gestational age was positive' f! x! [5 n( r y* z
in 21 cases (2.1 % ).$ X1 _; p+ ~* f3 a0 j: A8 G& y/ M3 U
Examination4 t3 ~3 B) `" F8 O; a0 N
In addition to the full examination by the paediatric staff , each boy
2 _( n3 R; {3 f4 |/ d& b3 swas examined for anomalies of the external genitalia during the8 P/ Q8 V5 z$ S5 u+ Z
fi rst 24 h of life by one specially trained researcher. Examination$ g1 n! A8 z! O2 h+ [( n' E& @1 g
of the genital system included measurement of stretched penile
; p( T- E$ @* i6 Ilength (8) and examination of external genitalia for congenital
1 A9 \6 `3 E! T9 `7 J+ ?anomalies such as cryptorchidism (9) and hypospadias. Hypospa- [1 Q! y; |. K, {5 D& U
dias was graded as not glanular, coronal, penile, penoscrotal, scro-
) Y- F+ ?1 g* h* n: V' `8 g6 `$ ttal, or perineal according to the anatomical position. Cases of iso-
: x) W/ R$ N! M6 `lated malformed foreskin without hypospadias were not included
4 T* ^, O, I8 R; oas cases.+ ~- u4 z2 j' q3 F- i
Penile length( M) j" S$ `: @$ P" y
Laboratory investigations2 m* {$ q: {8 ]6 Y
Free testosterone level was measured in 150 randomly chosen neo-
. |9 h; u+ w8 ]7 G5 tnates from the studied sample in the fi rst day of life (enzyme im-- V1 ]! _4 ?% U8 {
munoassay test supplied by Diagnostics Biochem Canada, Inc.,
1 w- ^! f/ Z' jDorchester, Ontario, Canada).3 k5 N+ m" Y! f: v: y7 W- r
Mean penile length was 3.41 ± 0.37 cm (range 2.4 – 4.6 cm).
; y' O& }4 m6 U9 n E- p0 lA penile length < 2.5 cm was considered micropenis ( < the7 C, n+ K6 t( w: M* v( M9 t1 j1 [& l
mean by 2.5 SD). Two cases (0.2 % ) were considered to$ ]2 _. v6 q ~% _7 t$ ? B
have micropenis. Mean penile length was lower (p = 0.041)
' H3 J1 t e0 Xin neonates exposed to EDs (n = 81, 3.1 cm) compared to the, Z. B+ X4 P8 j* r3 N
non-exposed group (n = 919, 3.4 cm; Figure 1 ).: {8 K% N" R4 c( {5 ^6 l' o
There was a linear relationship between penile length [& Z( M, {, f( ~, r, Z
and the length of the newborn with a regression coef-7 r2 Q& R/ a. d; z6 z( K! b
ficient of 0.05 (95 % CI 0.04 – 0.06; p < 0.0001), i.e., there- ^/ V) Y5 B7 O
was an increase of 0.05 cm for each unit increase in length- J8 @7 G0 w/ C( p
(cm). Similarly, there was a linear relationship between
" w- V! g5 _; `3 W/ H$ x9 {penile length and the weight of the newborn with a regres-
/ J& R( |7 M' psion coefficient of 0.14 (95 % CI 0.09 – 0.18; p < 0.0001), i.e.,' |7 ]2 p4 r& m7 I: l
there was an increase of 0.14 cm for each unit increase in
- g$ b2 h, A% G3 J# E5 Oweight (kg).6 w% M3 K p3 j, R8 [ l, w
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El Kholy et al.: Penile length and male genital anomalies 511
! U5 R, o0 L% Y3 q; |$ o3.45
( C0 g; S$ u+ {. n7 ^. z* I* z3.40
: C6 a! {( ?6 X& q( k3.354 e1 L5 O, Y R+ n( E7 ~% j/ ^
3.30& D7 Z' J4 N- C3 ~. R! q* n; n8 W: z5 [
3.25 E: O/ ]* H6 w3 W
3.20/ L5 Z2 B. m0 c. f1 m6 h
3.15
: [& V0 w/ |( O; p4 U$ w3.10
7 V1 L; R. p2 D+ U3.05
5 f/ y6 _9 k0 V0 t4 K. U3.003 S3 X$ i* b4 ^$ H
2.95
1 h9 V. ?: }) x) n) X2 P* o" J2.908 d- H. |, {4 O4 u) ^8 y' K
Mean
! F2 ]* ^( o, w8 E' I! r0 wpenile
* j) {2 A# U! t9 ^) B$ l7 d' hlength
/ Q! C r5 R0 h8 x4 P( can odds ratio of 6 (95 % CI 2 – 16), i.e., the exposed persons
2 {) v1 d5 v3 H( R. E6 Mwere six times more likely to develop anomalies than
/ J1 s3 L8 |( dthose not exposed (Table 1 ).
F7 Z; V, W6 T% c( b5 sGenital anomalies were detected in the offspring" m- B7 @2 e; J9 F6 L# J
of those exposed to chlorinated hydrocarbons (9.52 % ),
' o9 U6 k% O* r2 ^7 p2 p' Lphthalate esters (8.70 % ), and heavy metals (6.25 % ). In! B& U9 W5 ~) Z6 }' f* H$ N
contrast, none of the newborns exposed to phenols had
' I. Y! q7 H9 i) ~; ]3 F7 z/ J% vgenital anomalies (Table 2 ).8 G/ ^- f: J/ j1 Y! Z
Exposed2 P' I- [5 f. [3 i; K6 u
Non exposed
+ ~4 {7 P7 i( jPenile lengths according to exposure to endocrine+ R+ N+ ?% P+ E0 u
Figure 1 disruptors.
; @8 h! S" s2 U; ]# ySerum free testosterone levels5 t/ W3 Z: ^/ b4 \ {& G3 Q8 e
Exposure to cigarette smoke and progestins
. i& o! D1 m: \during the first trimester
4 \3 e$ m6 l% zNone of the mothers in the study was an active smoker;
; F' {# t) M2 j i5 C350 were only exposed through passive smoking. There
, W4 z. E" z# C5 [/ E0 X/ qwas no difference between rates of anomalies among
- ^0 M9 G: \0 |( F% T9 p# e! Ithose exposed to cigarette smoke when compared to those
$ B" }& K7 R1 h3 A+ t4 `2 pnot exposed (1.1 % vs. 2.2 % ). Similarly, there was no differ-
, e6 P9 P4 G! X5 G4 K# \$ `ence between the rates of anomalies among those exposed
9 V+ a& O- q. r/ Nto progestins during the first trimester when compared to
% G- D6 k8 F6 ]; f+ Sthe non-exposed ones (2 % vs. 1.8 % ).
# T; R& |. h7 K/ u% j3 ^* vIn the first day of life, serum free testosterone levels" x/ v. E8 O; G# }* T4 c
ranged between 7.2 and 151 pg/mL (mean 61.9 ± 38.4 pg/mL;9 u3 U. R- ]+ v
median 60 pg/mL). There was a linear relationship
& V" O+ v, D$ K* v' a7 R5 k. }% o8 p$ Sbetween penile length and testosterone level of the! f1 R7 ~0 B# v: T- M7 r
newborn with a regression coefficient of 0.002 (95 % CI
; V' ?) {& b8 D$ k9 ^0.0004 – 0.003; p = 0.01), i.e., there was an increase of 0.2 cm
! I7 r/ L& M Jin penile length per 100 pg/mL increase in testosterone
. H, N/ m+ B( I5 mlevel. Moreover, serum testosterone level was significantly' c* N( u, u2 B9 f6 ^0 t
lower in newborns exposed to EDs (49.50 ± 22.3 pg/mL)8 ?' x ~! V6 v% ~: `! T0 c7 ]
than in the non-exposed group (72.20 ± 31.20 pg/mL;
5 Z) z! @0 A! g( _- g/ i; ?0 [* hp < 0.01).
8 R! F/ t* c. [" r7 \6 @5 T: g3 f% fTable 1 Frequency of genital anomalies according to type of/ M8 \- u, Z4 n' B" y/ F
exposure to endocrine disruptors.
5 k9 j7 ^ e1 G& E- U1 KExposure to endocrine
2 t6 Z' {& V9 Odisruptors+ v7 `" P5 j0 Q+ ~
Prevalence of genital anomalies
3 k/ `. Y: G/ Q d2 H, J, \Anomalies Total. U B' {% T1 A X7 |6 ~* l3 p
Negative Positive0 h: C% t* Q" \# c
Negative exposure 908 11 9197 i( a7 T4 S# O" B% A8 Q
98.8 % 1.2 % 100.0 %
$ {8 @" W0 d5 N' ^Positive exposure 75 6 81
1 F! j3 Z, W: R92.6 % 7.4 % 100.0 %, y2 w: X: ~& e. Y3 g+ w
Total 983 17 1000
0 L/ T" O0 ], Q1 S A98.3 % 1.7 % 100.0 %( I, l) f& ^. O5 _. u
χ 2 = 25.05, p < 0.0001., p [: _! q7 E U
Over the study period, the birth prevalence of genital
1 U7 v) f6 N6 Y0 A/ Danomalies was 1.8 % , i.e., 18/1000 live birth. Hypospadias
# m! e" Y W$ H, T* \8 ~* Z8 Aaccounted for 83.33 % of the cases. Fourteen had glanu-# U; G4 M) G1 Y+ a
lar hypospadias and one had coronal hypospadias. One0 h) J- t F+ y# u+ C$ M/ d2 I
had penile torsion and another had penile chordee. Right-
+ s- f$ t( d7 h, r% g# Msided cryptorchidism was present in one newborn.
! u4 v' \6 j3 M, fExposure to EDCs
9 N3 l% v( u' \" ?Among the whole sample, 81 newborns (8.10 % ) were
# \) i* ^* n6 _. b5 nexposed to EDs. The duration of exposure varied from
0 K0 y/ X% Q/ G! J$ t5 e) g+ @2 to 32 years with a frequency of exposure ranging from$ T3 G$ ^ B/ ~: ^. N1 @" u2 x
weekly to 2 – 3 months per year.
4 o/ W; _- a; x, S* w5 tThere was a significantly higher rate of anomalies- t5 Q h6 r( T* i3 Z* p! r
among those who were exposed to EDs when compared! B! o) G0 l* s. ?
to non-exposed newborns (7.4 % vs. 1.2 % ; p < 0.0001), with, v$ H9 P# K1 b: ~8 ^3 U$ `
Table 2 Type of endocrine disruptor and percentage of anomalies in1 ^3 u7 z; R6 K9 R$ F0 X; x
the group of neonates exposed to endocrine disruptors (n = 81). d. {- ^3 x' [4 f+ H0 \2 p. k% x
Anomalies Total
3 f* W! w+ x) R' `3 {) Y! N# pNegative Positive
: ]/ d; w) I$ N+ }' X$ w" RChlorinated hydrocarbons (farmers) 19 2 21
8 Y& G8 V& `( u90.48 % 9.52 % 100.0 %
; O+ `8 _3 Q% Y" O2 m+ P# T4 a! MHeavy metals (iron smiths, welders) 30 2 324 h! G( p' _0 b+ W+ `. `; b& ^9 k
93.75 % 6.25 % 100.0 %- n% c2 S/ r ?/ e
Phthalate esters (house painters) 21 2 23
7 e6 s6 E0 l& g. w8 g7 B91.30 % 8.70 % 100.0 %
2 G& C: b+ d5 S$ M7 Y% j7 R. vPhenols (car mechanics) 5 0 5, D; m* f7 `! r' `- M8 q9 J+ K
100.0 % 0 % 100.0 %
3 F9 \* f: l8 _1 hTotal 75 6 81' j% q' ]* ^% ^) I
92.60 % 7.40 % 100.0 %. p# S# X9 s* C9 l: U: S& R- l
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/ K1 z4 p0 a @5 g' y0 r4 O2 l( v512 El Kholy et al.: Penile length and male genital anomalies
( S! m8 D: K% w4 {Discussion
* n. `0 E7 v% t' E* i- VPreviously reported penile lengths varied from 2.86 to 3.75 cm2 Z! ]/ f! J) v- z8 K7 s
(11 – 16) and depended on ethnicity. In Saudi Arabia (13) ,
# K2 O# s1 X! i; x+ mmean newborn penile length was 3.55 ± 0.57 cm, slightly$ C) K/ o$ w5 q$ C% o! h
higher than our mean value. However, the cut-off lower
F' b! e2 ^3 W: {9 n6 Alimit ( – 2.5 SD) was calculated to be 2.13 cm (vs. 2.5 cm in4 }& r5 ~, B6 |8 K% n
our cohort). This emphasizes the importance of establish-
7 \# y# z3 h) q: x3 w2 F/ Ling the normal values for each country because the normal. z- s7 M5 T. n0 |0 a- J' {$ n
range could vary markedly. In a multiethnic community,
) @6 c+ f% T0 S c7 d9 {" r# `2 Na mean length of – 2.5 SD was used for the definition of8 q6 j! u& d# e: |
micropenis and was 2.6, 2.5, and 2.3 cm for Caucasian,, Q# t7 h4 ~2 u# S. K0 v5 N4 C8 `
East-Indian, and Chinese babies, respectively (p < 0.05).
- |: k% }4 @, Q! f9 _4 ?0 FThis is close to the widely accepted recommendation that
7 b! j0 X3 |$ [, P! e7 k* m- oa penile length of 2.4 – 2.5 cm be considered as the lowest$ ~6 e8 [% N# i, G! @/ J/ `
limit for the definition of micropenis (8) . The recognition
2 I0 F- a: {% jof micropenis is important, because it might be the only
" K ?; Z/ V. X ^$ b7 b" Y% vobvious manifestation of pituitary or hypothalamic hor-0 k1 g) W. c! {0 k$ ?& y1 j* X
monal deficiencies (17) .
) m# N1 P7 B1 h8 N7 m4 V: q( YThe timing for measurement of testosterone in new-2 l: P+ F/ m# H7 h, f2 V7 P8 ~2 }
borns is highly variable but, generally, during the first 29 r3 [0 E. }, b" E7 K7 `: p; m
weeks of life (18) . In our study, serum testosterone level7 Z! o: y$ g9 O
was measured in all newborns on day 1 in order to fix a4 ~( } T; A+ e5 A e! l
time for sample withdrawal in all newborns and, also, to
- Y! n3 A* h% f; Y8 b- Nmake sure that all samples were withdrawn before mothers
% L, W! O/ P( M& Swere discharged from the maternity hospital. We found a4 _) F% i* N9 }; [
linear relationship between penile length and testosterone
: \9 y& A: A& G2 n& U Ulevels of newborns. Mean penile length was lower in neo-+ ]: W4 b) S: ~( w+ x7 F' H
nates exposed to EDs compared to the non-exposed group,& G0 b* g* O# L2 e
which could be related to the lower testosterone levels in
1 M- w2 a/ T& w* dthe exposed group. The etiology of testicular dysgenesis
' F) z2 d. i; m8 _. Q# W3 nsyndrome (TDS) is suspected to be related to genetic and/or2 v" o R2 ^; l; `# d; E
environmental factors, including EDs. Few human studies
_2 E4 M( y! t* hhave found associations/correlations between EDs, includ-' r- w4 V1 u+ ?- c5 s8 { H- x+ B# ^
ing phthalates, and the different TDS components (18) .6 t% M7 Y: S3 }* G5 J
Some reports have suggested an increase in hypo-
3 F- y, t; ? D- E0 |spadias rates during the period 1960 – 1990 in European+ w/ k# j% \0 A+ B0 d8 R
and US registries (19 – 23) . There are large geographical/ F( t/ K7 e l# W, A3 Z9 Z5 {
differences in reported hypospadias rates, ranging from0 h' [/ o9 I: d' E' n7 X6 a |* R
2.0 to 39.7/10,000 live births (23 – 25) . Several explanations( k4 E& d J/ w6 j3 @- S
have been proposed for the increasing trends and geo-& H+ r4 x1 K4 X! ]. l% x1 i
graphical differences. As male sexual differentiation is6 `* Q) C, U( e" ~5 y" s
critically dependent on normal androgen concentrations,& \/ d% T; b3 Z3 Y8 { e
increased exposure to environmental factors affecting
) k3 Z) B# K5 M3 A- Bandrogen homeostasis during fetal life (e.g., EDs with
3 |8 s1 z* T5 }2 g$ f, @estrogenic or anti-androgenic properties) may cause( S$ L# Q4 B9 f' E( G* ~
hypospadias (3, 4) .
8 y& R1 h3 j! }In Western Australia, the average prevalence of hypo-
. l3 B/ p' h: f7 Dspadias in male infants was 67.7 per 10,000 male births.
1 m3 C0 c% C2 b2 j) e) W8 a5 @# `/ PWhen applying the EUROCAT definition (24), the average) d0 g2 B& s3 n& r7 \: E5 `7 @
prevalence of hypospadias during 1980 – 2000 was 21.8 per4 P5 l, _- d/ p. e9 t$ T
10,000 births and the average annual prevalence increased
8 z7 N+ R; E3 x, ]; zsignificantly over the study period by 2.2 % per year. The2 k( |& j$ p- D9 A
prevalence of hypospadias in this study was much higher6 w1 `$ D- V! _1 t9 `9 a. I
at 150 per 10,000; by excluding glanular hypospadias, the' M4 F% l: _" s3 \0 u2 s
prevalence fell sharply to 10 per 10,000 (26) .
5 s/ k0 t% |7 e6 p# K8 }We found a higher rate of anomalies among newborns
- \" _0 J' C3 ^# h3 L+ Q. g5 X# `exposed to EDs when compared to non-exposed newborns
6 k: I$ A0 z# `. y" g8 l$ L" @2 F. R(7.4 % vs. 1.2 % ); this raises the issue that environmental5 w. y( N% \* d' N9 ?6 _9 |1 y: U
pollution might play a role in causing these anomalies.3 U% l' w8 H% i* O5 \
Within the last decade, several epidemiologic studies
8 Q% [$ R5 M4 t! E$ j9 g, s. s lhave suggested environmental factors as a possible cause
0 X9 L7 ]. W4 X1 a9 U' Y: ?+ kfor the observed increased incidence of abnormalities in# J# d# ]7 q3 T& ?2 R# F
male reproductive health (27) . Parental environmental/
- ~* {& c' C7 ? w; j1 boccupational exposure to EDs before/during pregnancy
: u. T' _. P& N7 l! z" Bindicates that fetal contamination may be a risk factor for
- |4 `- R* f: athe development of male external genital malformation
1 f8 f! o' I0 F; V, ^(27 – 29) .
2 [0 q" C/ b! ]0 L9 z: zReceived October 25, 2012; accepted January 27, 2013; previously. H {0 q" H$ o) ~1 M4 R# G
published online March 18, 2013, B% Y' U' X5 t$ q
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