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Mohamed El Kholy , Rasha Tarif Hamza * , Mohamed Saleh and Heba Elsedfy
/ N4 A! N$ R2 s v. QPenile length and genital anomalies in Egyptian, a: a0 ~4 i$ x$ ~0 T5 a. Y
male newborns: epidemiology and influence of0 T, w5 Z) z& @& q& Y4 @/ D1 f
endocrine disruptors, z# D0 q: Q7 l4 ~
Abstract: This is an attempt to establish the normal( Y+ A- E/ G+ u! Z3 y( a$ A
stretched penile length and prevalence of male geni-# |7 O6 M5 H, K3 F% {
tal anomalies in full-term neonates and whether they% b* s$ u1 S2 P6 N
are influenced by prenatal parental exposure to endo-" p& _ M% G& `7 y: z/ f
crine-disrupting chemicals. A thousand newborns were, h; m7 Y$ w8 L, F7 H
included; their mothers were subjected to the following- b h) }/ q$ q5 g5 X
questionnaire: parents ’ age, residence, occupation, con-: _, V9 A; T5 e" ~& j4 a
tact with insecticides and pesticides, antenatal exposure
& p$ l& u: d; Z) r9 u1 o& Tto cigarette smoke or drugs, family history of genital9 p9 b# g6 K) q
anomalies, phytoestrogens intake and history of in vitro Y$ f: L2 [, B' g, I# _- h
fertilization or infertility. Free testosterone was measured
2 W8 f) Y# {/ Q; bin 150 neonates in the first day of life. Mean penile length
) y2 @+ z$ v7 ?! y! r( x# N- X! wwas 3.4 ± 0.37 cm. A penile length < 2.5 cm was considered3 D2 V& N" `" v! ^8 u8 e8 L8 U! h
micropenis. Prevalence of genital anomalies was 1.8 %! w( J- e! ?1 V) P: a. w
(hypospadias 83.33 % ). There was a higher rate of anoma-1 X- O- @# C% E, r8 W& A
lies in those exposed to endocrine disruptors (EDs; 7.4 % )
' V1 U7 n9 d- ^1 a! w6 X' [) J0 T1 _8 \than in the non-exposed (1.2 % ; p < 0.0001; odds ratio 6,
8 \. J, v0 w8 c# N/ n8 f95 % confidence interval 2 – 16). Mean penile length showed
; ~; A6 l. \% y: v+ Ja linear relationship with free testosterone and was lower2 r) y$ w' z" I7 _+ z4 ~
in neonates exposed to EDs.
# E% f( M- n6 L5 {Keywords: endocrine disruptors; genital anomalies; male;& n5 @& k! ?9 F5 k
penile length; testosterone.
# {. E" ?. m" G*Corresponding author : Rasha Tarif Hamza, MD, Faculty of( f( A: g8 P/ q
Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Ain Shams University, 361 n7 Y4 V1 d8 M! K
Hisham Labib Street, off Makram Ebeid Street, Nasr City, Cairo% I1 o {( r, I/ M$ ]/ t6 Y& P
11371, Cairo, Egypt, Phone: + 20-2-22734727, Fax: + 20-2-26904430 ,
' B: K. @- R8 \+ e& ZE-mail: rashatarif_2000@hotmail.com" f: S3 N4 o$ c0 B, Y5 S
Mohamed El Kholy, Mohamed Saleh and Heba Elsedfy: Faculty of( s) o5 k8 {% O0 _+ Z0 m
Medicine , Department of Pediatrics, Ain Shams University, Cairo,
7 Y6 b- A' \( k# Y3 GEgypt- c4 g& v1 l; m9 q* Z& C+ n* c
Introduction) a" y8 u6 s# \/ p! U2 o% R- O
Determination of penile size is employed clinically in
3 _+ d8 g! O1 [4 {the evaluation of children with abnormal genital devel-' f; {- V$ B" R5 @& G; \
opment, such as, for example, micropenis, defined as a1 h& @, S# n* E: D
penis that is normal in terms of shape and function, but is; }) O: e* P: e* Z
more than 2.5 standard deviations (SD) smaller than mean
+ n" Z2 q7 x7 w5 Q% d. G. Z7 csize in terms of length (1) . However, these measurements
+ J, u1 c3 |7 |! c1 L7 _ Zcan be subject to significant international variations, in- i6 i; F* ?: o/ t# m
addition to being obtained with different methodologies+ G& Q4 X) y% |' D. T
in some cases (2) .
) [' W6 i# A* N# ?# T+ F& r. a# gOver the past 20 years, the documented increase in
0 |( F/ i; U2 I$ c/ o6 Fdisorders of male sexual differentiation, such as hypo-& U" @7 n3 J- h
spadias, cryptorchidism, and micropenis, has led to the H4 q8 C2 S2 `- p! e$ U8 x9 L
suspicion that environmental chemicals are detrimental
[% v5 l9 _7 r. ?2 vto normal male genital development in utero (3) . The so-: g+ {# V* v: o% T. ^* W
called Sharpe-Skakkebaek hypothesis offered a possible; t! H; ~# F4 N8 T! E# v
common cause and toxicological mechanism for abnor-
5 t+ A& u7 P2 F7 r1 L4 F' W7 Gmalities in men and boys – that is, increased exposure to
: }# B4 _2 R1 H6 `oestrogen in utero may interfere with the multiplication
5 [+ L% N2 V6 Z0 N( E8 M# uof fetal Sertoli cells, resulting in hormonally mediated6 r7 |- y- [, h. u2 \- E) w2 l/ J
developmental effects and, after puberty, reduced quality) E. v; z% q( w
of semen (4) .! F' i2 R5 x' w3 V& I% ~* s
It has been proposed that these disorders are part of J$ ? {" w7 G h+ U! P
a single common underlying entity known as the testicu-7 G& Q5 m2 o7 W
lar dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) (5) . TDS comprises various
3 K8 {* y1 [* E& b5 ~* saspects of impaired gonadal development and function,
$ N _1 h# F+ A& Nincluding abnormal spermatogenesis, cryptorchidism,0 H0 `. S/ X. x. l T& ?
hypospadias, and testicular cancer (6) .
8 h& U3 `& d1 G7 l$ |) |The etiological basis for this condition is complex
6 b* [' A1 E$ R9 [, ^and is thought to be due to a combination of both genetic/ X+ D" p4 i5 z' Q" s3 H
and environmental factors that result in the disruption
X) m3 P! X7 T0 X( m+ eof normal gonadal development during fetal life. First,/ I* J4 [) L6 H( T
it was proposed that environmental chemicals with oes-
# s4 D$ \3 o" Ytrogen-like actions could have adverse effects on male: w. @- O# m8 y1 j
gonadal development. This has since been expanded to
# ?8 ^. q1 c0 |5 ?* O ~+ Winclude environmental chemicals with anti-androgen- p$ X+ C: y2 m, V* C1 C S2 ?
actions and it is now thought that an imbalance between/ Y( q0 r D: X0 ]6 J8 h
androgen and oestrogen activity is the key mechanism by
: {1 }$ I; | B3 r! T. e! owhich exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)
' _8 n/ ?3 ~, aresults in the development of TDS and male reproductive
6 k. N0 F! _0 O n- v" Ctract abnormalities (5) .. O/ a7 Z; S2 X. H
With the increasing use of environmental chemicals,# k5 M% }3 z& x* G7 u
an attempt was made to establish the normal stretched
1 m# C$ ~' D9 Q7 Q- C# Upenile length as well as the prevalence of male genital0 |) E* t1 V" B; K0 |, b' U! T
anomalies in full-term neonates and whether there is an) o8 S9 h) D( M; [% E
influence of prenatal parental exposure to potential EDCs( \ N4 Q% l% R" J# U
on these parameters.+ I5 w2 i% ?; B6 f
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510 El Kholy et al.: Penile length and male genital anomalies/ t( b3 |+ i9 N( i( _0 Z1 d% W
Subjects and methods4 b3 r/ ]* V% h' |' i
Study population
% g3 p1 T% k: e7 h6 TThe study was conducted as a prospective cohort study at the Univer-
7 E4 t% i# p. I0 x& {sity Hospital of Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt. A sample of 1000; M$ j- ?3 Q" I9 l" P. h$ E- U( [- F+ t
male full-term newborns was studied.
1 z0 I* H! `# X8 X) X; A; ZSampling technique6 y6 q# J! X! B5 I% ~6 j* B8 r0 y
Three days per week were selected randomly out of 7 days. In each9 b, X t; X: o- q7 w' x
day, all male full-term deliveries were selected during the time of fi eld
2 q: |$ D* w+ s+ Zstudy (12 h) during the period from March 2007 to November 2007./ g; h1 ~5 r0 n+ z3 d( j
Statistical analysis
" I7 B! z' c8 r) a' EThe computer program SPSS for Windows release 11.0 (SPSS Inc.,5 E% K1 }7 B2 b: g3 N; ?
Chicago, IL, USA) was used for data entry and analysis. All numeric) p X& O, u/ K
variables were expressed as mean ± SD. Comparison of diff erent vari-4 C6 A, ~, [# i) |
ables between two groups was done using the Student ’ s t-test for
2 @# S* G) k- onormally distributed variables. Comparisons of multiple groups were
6 j; Z+ O' `4 q# g+ Vdone using analysis of variance and post hoc tests for normally dis- `1 l7 L. [" f8 Q! T; x& g/ L3 _- Q
tributed variables. The χ 2 -test was used to compare the frequency of
$ `! r$ [; p- q2 w% j5 Cqualitative variables among the diff erent groups; the Fisher exact test/ D& n k- _1 M( [8 p
was performed in tables containing values < 5. The Pearson correla-
- y' V6 W: E3 q2 l9 i( t& ~% J0 Etion test was used for correlating various variables. For all tests, a
* U! J1 o! ? h5 l2 hprobability (p) < 0.05 was considered signifi cant (10) .
6 q$ g) g: I6 B0 T6 ~Results
% X3 N2 \' N; ]1 j/ O/ OData collected
! a$ o( R9 r- m+ e7 BA researcher completed a structured questionnaire during inter-
' \ a# x B1 yviews with the mothers. The questionnaire gathered information
& Q. t/ K# i% Q, R$ g6 yon the following: age of parents; residence; occupation of the5 Z, Z; G) H! X9 l
parents; contact with insecticides and pesticides and their type and
7 A: d, G- U. f3 g# }- u Nfrequency of contact; maternal exposure to cigarette smoke during
* l1 N' x) J# R$ Epregnancy; maternal drug history during gestation; family history
& u3 r9 u+ w5 g5 z# Lof hypospadias, cryptorchidism, or other congenital anomalies; in-) ?) A# y$ Z9 M c S6 k: K
take of foods containing phytoestrogens, e.g., soy beans, olive oil,9 s6 ^7 T! f" }1 p" E8 c
garlic, hummus, sesame seed, and their frequency; and, also, his-$ R2 q; G- W0 M7 r
tory of in vitro fertilization or infertility (type of infertility and drugs
( ~$ c1 ?: s3 ~: }given).
" d0 c2 Q- y) t, X* eEnvironmental exposure to chemicals was evaluated for its po-
; u* O2 `/ X4 _& b* Wtential of causing endocrine disruption. Chemicals were classifi ed: ?: j; A# U& [/ e; h3 }7 R& }
into two groups on the basis of scientifi c evidence for their having
, ?! n i; J; a. F+ |( hendocrine-disrupting properties: group I: evidence of endocrine dis-
6 M) i- O. Z8 c' t0 Z% m' druption high and medium exposure concern; group II: no evidence of! v6 y) w9 _( ?8 l, q
endocrine disruption and low exposure concern (7) .$ M, p1 V# e- f
Descriptive data- ]6 Y$ M1 v* f; C% L( k7 |
The mean age of newborns ’ fathers was 36 ± 6 years (range1 w* Z, b, K/ H" f
20 – 50 years) and that of mothers was 26 ± 5 years (range
8 M8 O6 G! L! _: L/ q19 – 42 years). Exposure to EDs started long before preg-2 L" y* _5 ~1 e& `7 m; k
nancy and continued throughout pregnancy. Regard-+ |3 U0 i+ P7 ^7 k+ g5 y
ing therapeutic history during pregnancy, 99 mothers) n9 t' L2 I: ^9 i4 C: [6 w9 N0 X
(9.9 % ) received progestins, 14 (1.4 % ) received insulin,
* l K( F, s) ^- ?& O6 (0.6 % ) received heparin, 4 (0.04 % ) received long-
5 t% w2 _$ P* t: z; Q& ?acting penicillin, 3 (0.3 % ) received aspirin, 2 (0.2 % )& P2 T2 y& D# _3 Q
received B2 agonist, and 1 (0.1 % ) received thyroxin,
; b6 x5 H H4 B$ p' \# Dwhile the rest did not receive any medications during# T" N5 Z9 W% w! V
pregnancy except for the known multivitamins and* _# Y! c9 f- o( F2 R
calcium supplementations. In addition, family history
; g5 D7 {! y/ k' W* Nof newborns born small for gestational age was positive, j/ H$ w+ y3 [) D( P( s
in 21 cases (2.1 % ).
8 |3 C# c- S9 t8 }Examination
2 N4 v+ q4 r' G+ H0 u# \* \In addition to the full examination by the paediatric staff , each boy
4 ^! K' x* Y/ Q9 Q Mwas examined for anomalies of the external genitalia during the
9 q' }; k8 _0 c+ y2 bfi rst 24 h of life by one specially trained researcher. Examination1 z5 u0 ?- E% D7 ~. q. z
of the genital system included measurement of stretched penile/ X) m. ~8 A) ^+ I, |
length (8) and examination of external genitalia for congenital9 s7 F/ O: I: C
anomalies such as cryptorchidism (9) and hypospadias. Hypospa-
0 v5 D* ]6 Q+ I0 W* cdias was graded as not glanular, coronal, penile, penoscrotal, scro-
, V2 F3 u! p- e1 M# J8 A K [tal, or perineal according to the anatomical position. Cases of iso-7 ?5 O+ R p5 j6 @- ~! h
lated malformed foreskin without hypospadias were not included( k' F2 H6 C1 k: Y
as cases.1 b+ ?. E9 O$ _: H( r
Penile length
) u" o" G+ n9 O# w0 vLaboratory investigations; _4 J6 |, R: X) A& ~
Free testosterone level was measured in 150 randomly chosen neo-3 U8 B# O: o1 R: R7 K9 S: w6 W
nates from the studied sample in the fi rst day of life (enzyme im-
4 B0 l6 A2 A+ {- \munoassay test supplied by Diagnostics Biochem Canada, Inc.,
, d% p& O" W4 Y$ F+ C& ?; O8 aDorchester, Ontario, Canada).- l. e, N. h2 f0 S( K/ x
Mean penile length was 3.41 ± 0.37 cm (range 2.4 – 4.6 cm).8 A s' s) x7 g6 ~ n% r
A penile length < 2.5 cm was considered micropenis ( < the5 ?7 N: [- ^! J6 |3 A
mean by 2.5 SD). Two cases (0.2 % ) were considered to, v/ g: H6 C% i, @$ }( h$ ~3 u
have micropenis. Mean penile length was lower (p = 0.041)
1 b8 a7 o6 Q/ j! \& D1 ?1 l# T2 rin neonates exposed to EDs (n = 81, 3.1 cm) compared to the% C* {' V* a* h* H; Q* x
non-exposed group (n = 919, 3.4 cm; Figure 1 ).6 B1 s" D6 u+ V( y6 m
There was a linear relationship between penile length) O$ H3 R% k; U4 T1 C7 Q/ D
and the length of the newborn with a regression coef-
$ F2 w5 q- Y" x4 s! K6 vficient of 0.05 (95 % CI 0.04 – 0.06; p < 0.0001), i.e., there
) D3 B! C" T& Y' k) d, E* Zwas an increase of 0.05 cm for each unit increase in length: V- E3 O8 K% @
(cm). Similarly, there was a linear relationship between' y' I; X7 I( l4 l
penile length and the weight of the newborn with a regres-
: |; l+ S1 T) ~9 R% Qsion coefficient of 0.14 (95 % CI 0.09 – 0.18; p < 0.0001), i.e.,3 _! ~6 Q$ P$ I! t4 E
there was an increase of 0.14 cm for each unit increase in% b! [6 S! D1 T$ Y G) U
weight (kg).
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# }1 v) b. D( Z7 BEl Kholy et al.: Penile length and male genital anomalies 511" L# c+ |6 ~0 ~$ x* ^8 Q
3.456 L( L! z$ O# q. O& |
3.40; S6 j, h: s9 w v! {; C* m
3.35
- [. W3 W6 R" C; I% D3.30' h7 j+ ~7 I6 N+ ^' m9 w
3.254 _* U$ k& B9 s3 i3 k8 I8 l" T
3.20& V3 ~- Y5 ]" p" a+ {' ?3 I9 W
3.15
' T/ }, ^4 T% ]6 `8 F3.100 D. H( U6 I, F0 s
3.05
1 O' d# c/ U* Z( p6 x3.00
; ~7 y! ?0 } j9 Q% t2.95! o) j) e/ N3 l1 n' V/ G. P& F0 t$ S
2.90
; g2 f- X$ ]# _% Q( R& {2 t! CMean$ O- b" M# B: U j+ c5 ]: L
penile
) \$ }+ m4 ~/ U5 ^& W6 klength
% W0 a: u7 [5 v* E( Pan odds ratio of 6 (95 % CI 2 – 16), i.e., the exposed persons e' w& j2 _6 x# D; i
were six times more likely to develop anomalies than$ ?/ Z; D/ q, `2 J; Y) W9 j# {2 P5 X
those not exposed (Table 1 ).7 h9 V) L0 G3 h
Genital anomalies were detected in the offspring
" D ?# ~: M% T7 |3 g7 Bof those exposed to chlorinated hydrocarbons (9.52 % ),
' w: l; X% O: ?* }' h8 N9 I/ _2 W& Fphthalate esters (8.70 % ), and heavy metals (6.25 % ). In# ]% C3 R/ C* v% U5 l# M
contrast, none of the newborns exposed to phenols had; g# e$ Z& G) T/ y1 v5 y8 w. }
genital anomalies (Table 2 ).4 X# z4 E8 u- E1 r4 @7 T
Exposed8 R; D# E% K! G0 |4 L7 J
Non exposed
# U/ t" p% t$ HPenile lengths according to exposure to endocrine
% U d& O. ]8 r/ R1 t/ u) d$ A9 YFigure 1 disruptors.- b0 q U4 n6 v* O+ k
Serum free testosterone levels
$ D7 I( }3 E+ K- GExposure to cigarette smoke and progestins# P- c% G8 @3 x$ M
during the first trimester4 R) P" m7 C* m& u* T
None of the mothers in the study was an active smoker;
/ ^( P3 D6 V- l8 i/ U! U( o350 were only exposed through passive smoking. There! h G$ m5 @, ]
was no difference between rates of anomalies among# V# Z0 z- l% g8 w5 A' v1 ~
those exposed to cigarette smoke when compared to those
) ~' ~& k$ c5 d! a* A! e2 K& t8 ynot exposed (1.1 % vs. 2.2 % ). Similarly, there was no differ-
+ s' E1 n9 t* D- S$ y8 {9 ^ence between the rates of anomalies among those exposed
* |; |& B% W# [5 ]& Mto progestins during the first trimester when compared to
- y- W- q& d: T6 |+ A) ^the non-exposed ones (2 % vs. 1.8 % ).) v/ A( E3 U9 V/ Y
In the first day of life, serum free testosterone levels
- ~+ u7 P$ ~9 w+ {- Rranged between 7.2 and 151 pg/mL (mean 61.9 ± 38.4 pg/mL;
+ j' M; C; Y- i; B# P8 Z: Ymedian 60 pg/mL). There was a linear relationship! z7 z) Y, E4 V3 H# T$ h& `$ B+ G- K. w1 I
between penile length and testosterone level of the
" B7 o" D i$ A. T/ c9 }newborn with a regression coefficient of 0.002 (95 % CI, |! q* r$ R- U& {* \2 V" E5 B- v
0.0004 – 0.003; p = 0.01), i.e., there was an increase of 0.2 cm
4 D; A1 v) I" Kin penile length per 100 pg/mL increase in testosterone6 M& l% M+ {9 P& M1 F( A
level. Moreover, serum testosterone level was significantly
* N: E' @3 ^: L1 _lower in newborns exposed to EDs (49.50 ± 22.3 pg/mL)
) k d Q8 o, ]' z9 a( Uthan in the non-exposed group (72.20 ± 31.20 pg/mL;% h4 r9 ~: N3 w6 v- n- g
p < 0.01).& l) U, T2 {! M: H' `2 u' \! E
Table 1 Frequency of genital anomalies according to type of
: G" y! P6 E7 ~% f# Mexposure to endocrine disruptors.! y+ D3 g* t; J0 h
Exposure to endocrine; H* i9 }+ k) O& X. o8 C4 g
disruptors
! a" @# t+ w* C9 v1 r6 S5 a" CPrevalence of genital anomalies
# E( }8 ]5 V" B: W: WAnomalies Total( c% @9 k8 U" Y; a# @
Negative Positive
3 B; g x0 @& E! g! o' \2 pNegative exposure 908 11 919* F/ E: h& `, [; X: Q( ~' C: E
98.8 % 1.2 % 100.0 %
: ]2 {0 r; o# oPositive exposure 75 6 818 l- h4 t4 B- s6 n
92.6 % 7.4 % 100.0 %
, w$ j! i6 J( q, n# l4 zTotal 983 17 1000" z* G! a9 d) l3 M: p. i9 b( D; A
98.3 % 1.7 % 100.0 %
9 X% q7 j! f& _2 a3 s. Zχ 2 = 25.05, p < 0.0001.8 {. P) }0 S9 y% s
Over the study period, the birth prevalence of genital
) F9 q. v7 Y+ m* Xanomalies was 1.8 % , i.e., 18/1000 live birth. Hypospadias A) L( p# C4 N7 c7 H* D& K5 i
accounted for 83.33 % of the cases. Fourteen had glanu-- \- \+ u6 H0 {$ l1 u
lar hypospadias and one had coronal hypospadias. One- t8 Y8 K: R! y) R5 o
had penile torsion and another had penile chordee. Right-0 Y3 [& C8 c- s7 N
sided cryptorchidism was present in one newborn.
5 O1 m. `& V6 s' R# g- NExposure to EDCs
# ~6 Y; w( q) O5 l S# rAmong the whole sample, 81 newborns (8.10 % ) were
9 V- ?( N; b' u3 k" g8 R y# uexposed to EDs. The duration of exposure varied from
5 r" x* `" |, S4 ]2 to 32 years with a frequency of exposure ranging from* X' G+ L! r+ o9 m! y9 _& _9 M( g
weekly to 2 – 3 months per year.8 p$ w$ \( u" k) V6 ?6 G4 k
There was a significantly higher rate of anomalies1 q F3 I/ S+ }# h$ T
among those who were exposed to EDs when compared
2 n* c" K7 L: ito non-exposed newborns (7.4 % vs. 1.2 % ; p < 0.0001), with
* p0 P) j, I0 x# O0 k, o yTable 2 Type of endocrine disruptor and percentage of anomalies in
4 x- d `; u4 J/ g4 K5 h l1 K) |7 Mthe group of neonates exposed to endocrine disruptors (n = 81).
( _/ u {) Q" ~* v/ J! yAnomalies Total
) m0 H3 _& a. L% M! A; M4 ^Negative Positive
& D( T; |5 ~0 _6 P/ n1 q& j0 J! }Chlorinated hydrocarbons (farmers) 19 2 21- w# i/ Q% S& Y: v; I$ o3 b
90.48 % 9.52 % 100.0 %
V5 n+ J: K( a3 {3 t; ~! x8 j; `Heavy metals (iron smiths, welders) 30 2 32
/ H; E h( v/ c; ?93.75 % 6.25 % 100.0 %
( P3 c/ L& E/ Y! s2 U1 KPhthalate esters (house painters) 21 2 230 L! Y. v7 r k. ^. `$ ?- ^1 C s
91.30 % 8.70 % 100.0 %( W s) {; w# Y* @/ w' g
Phenols (car mechanics) 5 0 53 t8 k: @% C, O
100.0 % 0 % 100.0 %1 d- ^8 B! S8 U* y/ f V$ I# t
Total 75 6 81
* W# ^( o% V% l# @: l92.60 % 7.40 % 100.0 %
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512 El Kholy et al.: Penile length and male genital anomalies
* q( @5 c ^; M4 K# sDiscussion
! F8 o7 l/ f9 ~% W2 dPreviously reported penile lengths varied from 2.86 to 3.75 cm
( k5 | ]3 m; x& U$ s' ?(11 – 16) and depended on ethnicity. In Saudi Arabia (13) ,
* ^( U% _, l3 V9 |mean newborn penile length was 3.55 ± 0.57 cm, slightly0 f" p& y5 k! C6 i6 i; w6 f7 z9 Q+ Q
higher than our mean value. However, the cut-off lower
! g! @ i3 v. vlimit ( – 2.5 SD) was calculated to be 2.13 cm (vs. 2.5 cm in* k) \! x! q. y
our cohort). This emphasizes the importance of establish-8 k9 `6 A/ L0 p, {, i) D. J
ing the normal values for each country because the normal: W; K$ ^( P7 p( m0 |6 \
range could vary markedly. In a multiethnic community,: k* L# Z; |1 l5 C# a0 d
a mean length of – 2.5 SD was used for the definition of
* E6 P$ k$ W# gmicropenis and was 2.6, 2.5, and 2.3 cm for Caucasian,- i$ A7 o3 m) A5 ~' T1 n4 T
East-Indian, and Chinese babies, respectively (p < 0.05).# _ T: d S8 m2 M
This is close to the widely accepted recommendation that
2 c& N/ O% Y$ ~a penile length of 2.4 – 2.5 cm be considered as the lowest3 }7 }4 m: M) Q j' p9 w- |
limit for the definition of micropenis (8) . The recognition+ o! m$ v q6 k |( }8 d. T
of micropenis is important, because it might be the only4 p1 k* d% T: e: X
obvious manifestation of pituitary or hypothalamic hor-5 ]$ j& `6 Z- G* d4 ^5 \% ~# ]
monal deficiencies (17) .
$ P: K7 u, Y4 ^ ^" p- OThe timing for measurement of testosterone in new-/ x. k/ l( y& Y$ N- x5 {; D
borns is highly variable but, generally, during the first 20 ^" z3 O% q7 ^; ]. w
weeks of life (18) . In our study, serum testosterone level) V* N d9 [* n: i! c
was measured in all newborns on day 1 in order to fix a
) ?, H4 U1 H0 i7 t' h# F- K; o% \time for sample withdrawal in all newborns and, also, to* W( Y* X# `+ n; P1 x
make sure that all samples were withdrawn before mothers1 P& s4 x. b; [" Q0 b) R
were discharged from the maternity hospital. We found a! Y8 w) p" b( }* d
linear relationship between penile length and testosterone6 t. N r( o: K6 L
levels of newborns. Mean penile length was lower in neo-( ]1 i% ?" l8 R1 {+ D9 f3 ~
nates exposed to EDs compared to the non-exposed group,
) r, @: G/ T8 c, X- \- J. a, [which could be related to the lower testosterone levels in: y0 H. Y7 f0 v% u# K
the exposed group. The etiology of testicular dysgenesis
7 {# m" V2 _5 E K4 Nsyndrome (TDS) is suspected to be related to genetic and/or. g$ u2 z: |6 b3 A0 j
environmental factors, including EDs. Few human studies
. P6 S4 E6 Y/ ~have found associations/correlations between EDs, includ-5 Q& z( c; z, Y; ?7 Y
ing phthalates, and the different TDS components (18) .
# V5 Q* i, z* _% N; W3 U& rSome reports have suggested an increase in hypo-2 h( V- e( V& |6 X9 }
spadias rates during the period 1960 – 1990 in European2 ]* U- t9 D* \% n& {8 F B# b5 ^
and US registries (19 – 23) . There are large geographical
3 I& @9 r- g" b0 b) N% i9 vdifferences in reported hypospadias rates, ranging from& E# T8 n6 v1 o- I+ e
2.0 to 39.7/10,000 live births (23 – 25) . Several explanations
. s0 w/ d( E4 nhave been proposed for the increasing trends and geo-
' t/ H( ]2 g& hgraphical differences. As male sexual differentiation is
4 X' \. J8 n! X2 Bcritically dependent on normal androgen concentrations,( Z: {+ O7 c) C0 p3 S- _
increased exposure to environmental factors affecting0 D) j7 Q- y( J y. P" V9 V ~
androgen homeostasis during fetal life (e.g., EDs with
# x; Q' ^; R8 z9 y8 a! uestrogenic or anti-androgenic properties) may cause
/ ?/ j; j1 j! f @& V- W8 Whypospadias (3, 4) .; V+ S" `3 o9 G: p! ~: |9 d
In Western Australia, the average prevalence of hypo-
0 C. J5 b# v" p# wspadias in male infants was 67.7 per 10,000 male births.
9 p( i, c3 n, p" T; vWhen applying the EUROCAT definition (24), the average
9 D+ J! g! c+ E. J4 @. N; uprevalence of hypospadias during 1980 – 2000 was 21.8 per2 y. p# G- J/ k o' Q
10,000 births and the average annual prevalence increased
) v+ b- z4 g$ e0 Ssignificantly over the study period by 2.2 % per year. The. I; v. w0 k# i2 Z) `( I
prevalence of hypospadias in this study was much higher; ~7 H9 a: n& h9 }2 r- ~
at 150 per 10,000; by excluding glanular hypospadias, the( c! L/ f e1 F+ \8 ^. H! ^
prevalence fell sharply to 10 per 10,000 (26) .: S1 Q8 j* V( r# I7 F) y
We found a higher rate of anomalies among newborns! r0 J! ^2 T% N/ o
exposed to EDs when compared to non-exposed newborns
' E% r$ `4 ^6 y: K* F: ~(7.4 % vs. 1.2 % ); this raises the issue that environmental- h/ X- q/ _- ^# V: M# \
pollution might play a role in causing these anomalies.- N% O# o6 g0 k) s; |' u
Within the last decade, several epidemiologic studies" x# l5 P+ h6 J1 J
have suggested environmental factors as a possible cause, @* w% t# e$ E7 c4 s9 A, b
for the observed increased incidence of abnormalities in
% b- j1 m' F6 C; jmale reproductive health (27) . Parental environmental/
" S2 g" `* U5 J* ~/ soccupational exposure to EDs before/during pregnancy2 ?% S$ O. `' r* I
indicates that fetal contamination may be a risk factor for5 D( ?. d. o& o h1 E5 u
the development of male external genital malformation" l: B B- F+ ^3 o- s8 o7 ?% R
(27 – 29) .
) ]8 a( D+ ^( f( `* mReceived October 25, 2012; accepted January 27, 2013; previously3 O& R' L4 D: g
published online March 18, 2013
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